References

1

Arking, A., and D. Ziskin, Relationship Between Clouds and Sea Surface Temperatures in the Western Tropical Pacific. J. Clim., 7, 988-1000, 1994.

2

Barker, H. W., Solar Radiative Transfer Through Clouds Possessing Isotropic Variable Extinction Coefficient. Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 118, 1145-1162, 1992.

3

Boucher,O., H. Le Treut and Baker, M.B., Sensitivity of a GCM to Changes in Cloud Droplet Concentration. Eighth AMS Conf. on Atmos. Rad., Nashville, Tennessee, 558--560, 1994.

4

Cahalan, R. F., W. Ridgway, W. J. Wiscombe, T. L. Bell, and J. B. Snider, The Albedo of Fractal Stratocumulus Clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2434-2455, 1994a.

5

Cahalan, R. F., W. Ridgway, W. J. Wiscombe, S. Gollmer and Harshvardhan, Independent Pixel and Monte Carlo Estimates of Stratocumulus Albedo. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 3776-3790, 1994b.

6

Charlson, R.J., J. Langner, H. Rodhe, C. B. Leovy, and S. G. Warren, Perturbation of the Northern Hemisphere Radiative Balance by Backscattering from Anthropogenic Sulfate Aerosols. Tellus, 43A-B, (4), 152-163, 1991.

7

Chou, M.-D., W. L. Ridgway, M. M.-H. Yan, One-Parameter Scaling and Exponential-Sum Fitting for Water Vapor and CO Infrared Transmission Functions. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 2294-2303, 1993.

8

Chylek, P. and J.D. Klett, Absorption and Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation by Prismatic Columns: Anomalous Diffraction Approximation, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 8, 1713--1720, 1991.

9

Clerbaux, C., R. Colin, P. C. Granier, Infrared Cross-sections and Global Warming Potentials of 10 Alternative Hydrohalocarbons. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 10491-19497, 1993.

10

Clough, S. A., Radiative Transfer Model Development in Support of the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program, Proceed. 3rd ARM Science Team meeting, March 1-4, Norman Ok., 11-17, 1994.

11

Clough, S. A., M. J. Tacono, and J. L. Moncet, Line-by-Line Calculations of Atmospheric Fluxes and Cooling Rates: Application to Water Vapor. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 15,761-15,785, 1992.

12

Darnell, W. L., W. F. Staylor, S. K. Gupta, N. A. Ritchey, and A. C. Wilber, Seasonal Variation of Surface Radiation Budget Derived from International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project C1 Data. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 15741-15760, 1992.

13

Draine, B. T. and P. J. Flatau, Discrete--Dipole Approximation for Scattering Calculations, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 11, 1491-1498, 1994.

14

Dungey, C.C.E., and C. F. Bohren, Backscattering by nonspherical hydrometeors as calculated by the coupled dipole method : an application in radar meteorology. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 10, 526-532, 1993.

15

Dutton, E. G., An Extended Comparison Between LOWTRAN7 Computed and Observed Broadband ``Thermal Irradiances: Global Extreme and Intermediate Surface Conditions''. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 10, 326-336, 1993.

16

Dutton, E. G., and J. R. Christy, Solar Radiative Forcing at Selected Locations and Evidence for Global Lower Tropospheric Cooling Following the Eruptions of El Chichon and Pinatubo. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 2313-2316, 1992.

17

Dutton, E. G., P. Reddy, and S. Ryan, J. J. DeLuisi, Features and effects of aerosol optical depth observed at Mauna Loa Hawaii: 1982-1992. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 8295. 1994.

18

Edwards, J. M., and A. Slingo, A Comprehensive Two--Stream Code: Sensitivity Studies in a GCM, AMS Eighth Conf on Atmos Radiation, Nashville TN, AMS Boston MA, 116--117, 1994.

19

Ellingson, R. G., J. Ellis, and S. Fels, The intercomparison of radiation codes in climate models: longwave results. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 8929--8953, 1991.

20

Ellingson, R. G., W. J. Wiscombe, J. DeLuisi, V. Kunde, H. Melfi, D. Murcray, and W. Smith, The SPECTral Radiation Experiment (SPECTRE): Clear-sky Observations and their use in ICRCCM and ITRA.IRS'92: Current Problems in Atmospheric Radiation, S. Keevallik and O. Karner, Editors, A. DEEPAK Publishing, Hampton, VA 451-453, 1993.

21

English, S. J., C. Guillou, C. Prigent, and D.C. Jones, Aircraft measurements of water vapor continuum absorption at millimeter wavelengths, Q.J.R. Meteorol. Soc., 120, 603--625, 1994.

22

Evans, K.F., Two-Dimensional Radiative Transfer in Cloudy Atmospheres. The Spherical Harmonic Spatial Grid Method. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 3111-3124, 1993a.

23

Evans, K.F., A General Solution for Stochastic Radiative Transfer. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 2075-2078, 1993b.

24

Evans, K. F., and G. L. Stephens, A New Polarized Atmospheric Radiative Transfer Model. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 46, 413-423, 1991.

25

Evans, K. F., and G. L. Stephens, Microwave Radiative Transfer Through Clouds Composed of Realistically Shaped Ice Crystals. Part I: Single Scattering Properties. In Press: J. Atmos. Sci., 1994a.

26

Evans, K. F., and G. L. Stephens, Microwave Radiative Transfer Through Clouds Composed of Realistically Shaped Ice Crystals. Part II: Remote Sensing of Ice Clouds. In Press: J. Atmos. Sci., 1994b.

27

Falkowski, P. G., Y. Kim, Z. Kolber, C. Wilson, C. Wirick, and R. Cess, Natural Versus Anthropogenic Factors Affecting Low Level Cloud Albedo Over the North Atlantic. Science, 256, 1311-1313, 1992.

28

Flatau P. J., K. A. Fuller, and D. W. Mackowski, Scattering by Two Spheres in Contact: Comparisons Between Discrete--Dipole Approximation and Modal Analysis. Appl. Opt., 32, 3302--3305, 1994.

29

Fowler, L. D., and D. A. Randall, A Global Radiative-Convective Feedback. In Press: Geophys. Res. Lett., 1995.

30

Fu, Q. and K.-N. Liou, On the Correlated k--Distribution Method for Radiative Transfer in Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 2139--2156, 1992.

31

Fu, Q. and K.-N. Liou, Parameterization of the Radiative Properties of Cirrus Clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 2008--2025, 1993.

32

Fuller, K. A., Optical Resonances and Two-Sphere Systems. Appl. Opt., 30, 4716--4731, 1991.

33

Fuller, K. A., Scattering and Absorption Cross Sections of Compounded Spheres, I. Theory for External Aggregation. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A., 11, 3251-3260, 1994.

34

Fuller, K. A., Scattering and Absorption Cross Sections of Compounded Spheres: II. Calculations for External Aggregation. Accepted for Pub. J. Opt. Soc. Am., 1995a.

35

Fuller, K. A., Scattering and Absorption Cross Sections of Compounded Spheres: III. Spheres Containing Arbitrarily Located Spherical Inhomogeneities. Accepted for Pub. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A., 1995b.

36

Fuller, K. A, G. L. Stephens and B. D. Jersak, Some Advances in Understanding Light Scattering by Nonspherical Particles, AMS Eighth Conf. on Atmos. Radiation, Nashville TN, AMS Boston Ma, 319--321, 1994.

37

Gabriel, P. D., Tsay S-C., Stephens, G. L., A Fourier-Riccati Approach to Radiative Transfer. Part I: Foundations. J. Atmos. Sci, 50, 3126-3147, 1993.

38

Gabriel, P. D. and K.F. Evans, Simple Radiative Transfer Methods for Calculating Domain Averaged Solar Fluxes in Inhomogeneous Clouds. In Press: J. Atmos. Sci., 1994.

39

Greenwald, T. J., G. L. Stephens, T. H. Vonder Haar, and D. L. Jackson, A Physical Retrieval of Cloud Liquid Water Over the Global Oceans Using Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) Observations. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18,471-18,488, 1993.

40

Greenwald, T. J., G. L. Stephens, and T. H. Vonder Haar, Observations of the Global Characteristics and Radiative Effects of Marine Cloud Liquid Water. In Press: J. Climate, 1995.

41

Gupta, S. K., W. F. Staylor and W. L. Darnell, A. C. Wilber and Nancy A. Ritchey, Seasonal Variation of Surface and Atmospheric Cloud Radiative Forcing Over the Globe Derived From Satellite Data. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 20,761-20,778, 1993.

42

Han, Q., W. B. Rossow, A. A. Lacis, Near-Global Survey of Effective Droplet Radii in Liquid WAter Clouds Using ISCCP Data. J. Climate, 7, 465-497, 1994.

43

Harshvardhan, and M. D. King, Comparative Accuracy of Diffuse Radiative Properties Computed Using Selected Multiple Scattering Approximations. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 247-258, 1993.

44

Hu, Y.X. and K. Stamnes, An Accurate Parameterization of the Radiative Properties of Water Clouds Suitable for Use in Climate Models. J. Climate, 6, 728--742, 1993.

45

Husson, N., B. Bonnet, N. A. Scott, and A. Chedin, Management and Study of Spectroscopic Information: The GEISA Program. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf., 48, 509-518, 1992.

46

Houghton, J. and L.G.M. Filho, Radiative Forcing of Climate. Report to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1994.

47

Jensen, E., and O. B. Toon, The Potential Effects of Volcanic Aerosols on Cirrus-Cloud Microphysics. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1759-1762, 1992.

48

Jones, A., D. L. Roberts and A. Slingo, A Climate Model Study of the Indirect Radiative Forcing by Anthropogenic Sulphate Aerosol, Nature, 370, 450--453, 1994.

49

Karol, I. L., Model Evaluation of the Radiative and Temperature Effects of the Ozone Content Changes in the Global Atmosphere of 1980s. Paper Presented at the Quadrennial Ozone Symposium, 1992, Charlottesville, VA, 1993.

50

Kiehl, J. T., On the Observed Near Cancellation Between Longwave and Shortwave Cloud Forcing in Tropical Regions. J. Clim., 7, 559-565, 1994.

51

Kiehl, J. T., and B. P. Briegleb, The relative Role of Sulfate Aerosols and Greenhouse gases in Climate Forcing. Science, 260, 311-314, 1993.

52

Kim, Y., and R. D. Cess, Effect of Anthropogenic Sulfate Aerosols on Low Level Cloud Albedo Over Oceans. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 14883-14885, 1993.

53

King, M. D., Y. J. Kaufman, W. P. Menzel, and D. Tanre, Remote sensing of cloud, aerosol and water vapor properties from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS). IEEE Trans. Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 30, 2--27, 1992.

54

King, M. D., L. F. Radke, and P. V. Hobbs, Optical Properties of Marine Stratocumulus Clouds Modified by Ships. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 2729-2739, 1993.

55

Kisby C.G., D.P. Edwards, R.W. Saunders and A.M. Zavody, Water-Vapour Continuum Absorption in the Tropics: Aircraft Measurements and Model Comparisons. Q.J.R. Met. Soc., 118, 715--748, 1992.

56

Kuik, F., P. Stamnes, and J. Hovenier, Experimental Determination of Scattering Matrices of Water Droplets and Quartz Particles. Appl. Opt., 30, 4872--4881, 1991.

57

Kunz, K. S., and R. Luebbers, The Finite Difference Time Domain Method for Electromagnetics. CRC Press, Florida, 448 pp., 1993.

58

Kyle, H. L., J. R. Hickey, P. E. Ardanuy, H. Jacobowitz, A. Arking, G. G. Campbell, F. B. House, R. Maschhoff, G. L. Smith, L. L. Stowe, and T. Vonder Haar, The Nimbus Earth Radiation (ERB) Experiment: 1975-1992. Bull. Am. Met. Soc., 74, 815-830, 1993.

59

Lacis, A. A., and M. I. Mischenko, Climate Sensitivity and Climate Response: A Radiative Modelling Perspective on Atmospheric Aerosol. Aerosol Forcing of Climate, Charison and Heintzenberg (ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Dahlem Konferenzen, 1994.

60

Lacis, A. A., and V. Oinas, A Description of the Correlated K-Distribution Method. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 9027-9064, 1991.

61

Li, Z., and H. G. Leighton, Global Climatologies of Solar Radiation Budgets at the Surface and in the Atmosphere from 5 Years of ERBE Data. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 4919-4930, 1993.

62

Liebe, H. J. and G. A. Hufford, Models for atmospheric refractivity and radio-wave propagation at frequencies below 1 THz. Int. J. Infrared and Millimeter Waves, 1993.

63

Lin, B., and W. B. Rossow, Observations of Cloud Liquid Water Path Over Oceans: Optical and Microwave Remote Sensing Methods. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 20909-20927, 1994.

64

Liou K-N., and Y. Takano, Light Scattering by Nonspherical Particles: Remote Sensing and Climatic Implications. Atmos. Res., 31, 271-298, 1993.

65

Ma, Q., and R. H. Tipping, A Far Wing Line Shape Theory and its Application to the Water Vibrational Bands. J. Chem. Phys., 96, 8655--8663, 1992a.

66

Ma, Q., and R. H. Tipping, A Far Wing Line Shape Theory and its Application to the Foreign-Broadened Water Continuum Absorption. J. Chem. Phys., 97, 818--828, 1992b.

67

Macke, A., Scattering of Light by Polyhedral Ice Crystals. Appl. Opt., 32, 2780 - 2788, 1993.

68

Malgavi, F., R. N. Byrne, G. C. Pamraning and R.C.J. Somerville, Stochastic Radiative Transfer in a Partially Cloudy Atmosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 2146--2158, 1993.

69

Minnis, P., E. F. Harrison, L. L. Stowe, G. G. Gibson, F. M. Denn, D. R. Doelling, and W. L. Smith Jr., Radiative Climate Forcing by the Mount Pinatubo Eruption. Science, 259, 1411-1415, 1993.

70

Mishchenko, M. I., A. A. Lacis and L. D. Travis, Errors Induced by the Neglect of Polarization in Radiance Calculations for Rayleigh-Scattering Atmosphere, J.Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 51, 491--510, 1994.

71

Muinonen, K., and K. Lumme, Light Scattering by Solar System Dust: The Opposition Effect and the Reversal of Polarization. IAU Colloquium 126, Origin and Evolution of Dust in the Solar System, Kyoto, Japan (Kluwer Academic Press), 159--162, 1991.

72

Mulholland, G.W., C.F Bohren and K.A. Fuller, Light Scattering by Agglomerates: Couple Electric and Magnetic Dipole Method. Langmuir, 10, 2533-2546, 1994.

73

Ngo, D. and R. G. Pinnick, Suppression of Scattering Resonances in Inhomogeneous Microdroplets. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 11, 1352-1369, 1994.

74

O'Brien, D. M., Accelerated Quasi-Monte Carlo Integration of the Radiative Transfer Equation. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 48, 41-59, 1992.

75

Peltoniemi, J. I., Radiative Transfer in Stochastically Inhomogeneous Media. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 50, 655-671, 1993.

76

Pinker, R. T., and I. Laszlo, Interannual Variability of Solar Irradiance over the Amazon Basin Including the 1982-83 El Nino Year. J. Climate, 5, 1305-1315, 1992.

77

Prabhakara, C., D. P. Kratz, J.-M. Yoo, G. Dalu and A. Vernekar, Optically Thin Cirrus Clouds: Radiative Impact on the Warm Pool, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 49, 467-483, 1993.

78

Ramanathan, V., and W. Collins, Thermodynamic Regulation of Ocean Warming by Cirrus Clouds Deduced from Observations of the 1987 El Nino. Nature, 351, 27-32, 1991.

79

Ramaswamy, V., M. D. Schwarzkopf, and K. P. Shine, Radiative Forcing of Climate from Halocarbon-induced Global Stratospheric Ozone Loss. Nature, 355, 810-812, 1992.

80

Ramasawamy, V., and C.-T. Chen, An Investigation of the Global Solar Radiative Forcing due to Changes in Cloud Liquid Water Path. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 16703-16712, 1993.

81

Rind, D., and A. Lacis, The Role of the Stratosphere in the Climate Change. Surveys in Geophysics, 14, 133-165, 1993.

82

Rind, D., N. K. Balachandran, and R. Suozzo, Climate Change and the Middle Atmosphere. Part II: The Impact of Volcanic Aerosols. J. Climate, 5, 189-208, 1992.

83

Ritter, B and J.-F. Geleyn, A Comprehensive Radiation Scheme for Water Prediction Models with Potential Applications in Climate Simulations, Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 303--325, 1992.

84

Rossow, W. B., A. W. Walker, L. C. Garder, Comparison of ISCCP and Other Cloud Amounts. J. Climate, 6, 2394-2418, 1993.

85

Rossow, W. B., and Y.-C. Zhang, Calculation of Surface and Top-of-atmosphere Radiative Fluxes from Physical Quantities Based on ISCCP Datasets, Part II: Validation and First Results. (In Press), 1994.

86

Rothman, L. S., R. R. Gamach, R. H. Tipping, C. P. Rinsland, M. A. H. Smith, D. C. Benner, V. Malathy Devy, J.-M. Flaud, C. Camy-Peyret, A. Perrin, A. Goldman, S. T. Massie, L. R. Brown and R. A. Toth, The HITRAN Molecular Database: Editions of 1991 and 1992. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer , 48, 469-507, 1992.

87

Rudman, S., R.W. Saunders, C.J. Kilsby and P.J. Minnett, Measurements Over the Mediterranean Sea of the Water Vapor Spectral Continuum, Q.J.R. Met. Soc., (in press), 1994.

88

Sassen, K., Evidence for Liquid-Phase Cirrus Cloud Formation from Volcanic Aerosols: Climatic Implications. Science, 257, 516-519, 1992.

89

Schwarzkopf, M. D., and V. Ramaswamy, Radiative Forcing Due to Ozone in the 1980's: Dependence on Altitude of Ozone Change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 205-208, 1993.

90

Senior, C. A., and J.F.B. Mitchell, Carbon Dioxide and Climate: The Impact of Cloud Parameterization. J. Climate, 6, 393-418, 1993.

91

Shi, G., and X. Fan, Past, Present and Future Climatic Forcing Due to Greenhouse Gases. Adv. in Atmos. Sci., 9, 279-286, 1992.

92

Shine, K. P., The Greenhouse Effect and Stratospheric Change. In ``The Role of the Stratosphere in Global Change'' (ed. M.-L. Chanin), NATO ASI Series, Springer, 1993.

93

Shine, K. P., A. Grossman, D. Hauglustaine, V. Ramaswamy, M. D. Schwarzkopf, R. van Dorland, W.-C. Wang and others, An Intercomparison of Radiative Forcing Due to Ozone Changes by Different Models. In Press, 1995.

94

Slingo, A., and M. J. Webb, Simulation of Clear-sky Outgoing Longwave Radiation Over the Oceans Using Operational Analyses. Q.J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 118, 1117-1144, 1992.

95

Soden, B. J. and Donner, L. J., Evaluation of a GCM Cirrus Parameterization Rising Satellite Observations. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 14401, 1994.

96

Stephens, G. L., Dirty Clouds and Global Cooling. Nature, 370. 420--421, 1994.

97

Stephens, G. L., P. Gabriel and S.-C. Tsay, Statistical Radiative Transport in One-Dimensional Media and Its Application to the Terrestrial Atmosphere. Trans. Theory and Stat. Phys., 20, 139-175, 1991.

98

Stephens, G. L. and T. J. Greenwald, Observations of the Earth's Radiation Budget in Relation to Atmospheric Hydrology. Part II: Cloud Effects and Cloud Feedback. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 15,325-15,340, 1991b.

99

Stephens, G. L., A. Slingo, M. J. Webb, P. J. Minnett, P. H. Daum, L. Kleinman, I. Wittmeyer, and D. A. Randall, Observations of the Earth's Radiation Budget in Relation to Atmospheric Hydrology Part IV: Atmospheric Column Radiative Cooling Over the World's Oceans. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 18,585-18,604, 1994.

100

Stokes, G. M. and S. E. Schwartz, The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program: Programmatic Background and Design of the Cloud and Radiation Test Bed. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 75, 1201-1221, 1994.

101

Stowe, L. L., R. M. Carey, and P.P. Pellegrino, Monitoring the Mt. Pinatubo Aerosol layer with NOAA/11 AVHRR Data. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 159-162, 1992.

102

Su, B. and G. C. Pomraning, A Stochastic Description of a Broken Cloud Field. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1969-1977, 1994.

103

Takano, Y. and K. N. Liou, Transfer of Polarized Infrared Radiation in Optically Anisotropic Media: Application to Horizontally Oriented Ice Crystals. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A., 10, 1243-1256, 1993.

104

Taylor, J. P., Sensitivity of Remotely Sensed Effective Radius of Cloud Droplets to Changes in LOWTRAN Version, J. Atmos.Sci., 49, 2564--2569, 1992.

105

Taylor, K., and J. E. Penner, Anthropogenic Aerosols and Climate Change. In Press: Nature, 1994.

106

Tselioudis, G., W. B. Rossow, D. Rind, Global Patterns of Cloud Optical Thickness Variation with Temperature. J. Clim., 5, 1484--1495, 1992.

107

Valero, F.P.J., and P. Pilewski, Latitudinal Survey of Spectral Optical Depths of the Pinatubo Volcanic Cloud: Derived particle Sizes, Columnar Mass Loadings, and Effects on Planetary Albedo. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 163--166, 1992.

108

Waliser, D. E., N. E. Graham, C. Gautier, Comparison of the Highly Reflective Cloud and Outgoing Longwave Radiation Datasets for Use in Estimating Tropical Deep Convection. J. Clim., 6, 331--353, 1993.

109

Waliser, D. E., and R.C.J. Somerville, Preferred Latitudes of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1619--1639, 1994.

110

Wang, W.-C., Y.-C. Zhuang, and R. D. Bojkov, Climate Implications of Observed Changes in Ozone Vertical Distributions at Middle and High Latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 1567--1570, 1993.

111

West,R.A. and P.H. Smith, Evidence for Aggregate Particles in the Atmospheres of Titan and Jupiter, Icarus, 90, 330--333, 1991.

112

Wielicki, B. A., R. D. Cess, M. D. King, D. A. Randall, and E. F. Harrison, Mission to Planet Earth: Role of Clouds and Radiation in Climate. In Press: Bull. Am. Met. Soc., 1994.

113

Zhang, M. H., R. D. Cess, and T. Y. Kwon, Approaches of Comparison for Clear-Sky Radiative Fluxes from General Circulation Models with Earth Radiation Budget Experiment Data. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 5515--5524, 1994.

• Relevant Books